Chapter 2: Nationalism in India (Class 10 NCERT)

Introduction:

Nationalism in India was a powerful force that emerged in response to colonial exploitation and foreign rule. By the early 20th century, this sentiment began transforming into mass movements, culminating in a widespread struggle for independence. The chapter explores how various social groups became part of the national movement and how this collective struggle against the British Raj brought about significant change. Central to this was Mahatma Gandhi, whose ideology of Satyagraha and non-violence resonated deeply with the people. Over time, the struggle for Indian independence became a broad-based movement, encapsulating the hopes and aspirations of millions. This chapter delves into the key events, movements, and ideologies that fueled this era of Indian nationalism, focusing particularly on the years from 1919 to the 1930s.

Key Terms of Chapter 2: Nationalism in India

1. Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a nation, advocating for self-governance and independence from foreign control.
2. Satyagraha: A philosophy of non-violent resistance introduced by Mahatma Gandhi. It is based on the principles of truth (Satya) and non-violence (Ahimsa), emphasizing civil disobedience to fight against injustice.
3. Khilafat Movement: A pan-Islamic political protest launched by Indian Muslims in 1919 to protect the position of the Ottoman Caliphate after World War I, which Gandhi supported to unite Muslims and Hindus against British rule.
4. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): A mass movement led by Gandhi where Indians boycotted British goods, institutions, and titles to weaken British control over India.
5. Rowlatt Act (1919): A repressive law passed by the British government allowing imprisonment without trial for up to two years. It sparked widespread protests and contributed to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
6. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): A tragic event where British troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, killing over a thousand people. It fueled Indian resentment against British rule.
7. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): A movement initiated by Gandhi, urging Indians to openly defy British laws, particularly through the Salt March, which targeted the British monopoly on salt.
8. Salt March (1930): A 240-mile march led by Gandhi to the coastal town of Dandi, where he and his followers made salt in defiance of British salt laws. It symbolized the Indian resolve to challenge colonial rule.
9. Swadeshi: A movement promoting the use of indigenous goods and self-reliance, urging people to boycott foreign goods and strengthen Indian industries.
10. Poona Pact (1932): An agreement between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, which allowed reserved seats for Dalits in provincial legislatures, while maintaining a united electorate.
11. Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): A violent clash between protesters and police in Chauri Chaura, leading to the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi to maintain the principle of non-violence.
12. Depressed Classes/Dalits: The lowest castes in the Indian social hierarchy, often subjected to discrimination. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emerged as a key leader advocating for their rights during the freedom struggle.
13. Hind Swaraj: A book written by Mahatma Gandhi in 1909, which outlined his vision for an independent India based on self-rule, non-violence, and self-reliance.
14. Communalism: The tendency to divide people based on religion or community, which sometimes created divisions within the nationalist movement, especially between Hindus and Muslims.
15. Simon Commission (1927): A British commission set up to review the constitutional reforms in India, which was boycotted by Indians because it had no Indian representation.

These key terms are essential to understanding the complex events, ideologies, and movements that defined the nationalist struggle in India during the early 20th century.

1. The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation

• Impact of World War I:

• • Increased taxes: Defense expenditure led to the imposition of higher taxes, including income tax.
  • Inflation: Between 1913-1918, prices of essential goods doubled, severely affecting the common people.
  • Economic hardships: Crop failures in 1918-19, coupled with the influenza pandemic, exacerbated the economic situation​

• The Khilafat Issue:

• • Post-WWI, the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire alarmed Muslims worldwide as the position of the Khalifa, their spiritual leader, was threatened.
  • Indian Muslims, led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, initiated the Khilafat Movement, urging Gandhi to extend support. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unify Hindus and Muslims against the British​

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922):

• • Gandhi launched this movement in response to both the Khilafat issue and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, aiming to paralyze British rule through non-violent means.
  • Key objectives:
    • Boycott British goods, educational institutions, and law courts.
    • Promote Swadeshi (self-reliance) by using local goods and wearing khadi.
  • Key events:
    • Thousands resigned from government positions, students left schools and colleges, and people rejected British titles and honors​(

• Outcome:

• • The movement gained tremendous momentum but was abruptly suspended after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where violent clashes occurred, leading to Gandhi’s withdrawal of the movement to maintain non-violence​

2. The Idea of Satyagraha

Idea of Satyagraha

Satyagraha, meaning “truth force” or “soul force,” was a philosophy and method of nonviolent resistance developed by Mahatma Gandhi. It emphasizes the power of truth and the need to seek it through non-violent means. Gandhi believed that through Satyagraha, a person could appeal to the conscience of the oppressor by resisting injustice without physical violence.

The essence of Satyagraha is not only in refusing to obey unjust laws but also in actively enduring suffering to uphold truth and justice. Gandhi applied this principle successfully in several movements, such as the Champaran and Kheda Satyagrahas, to resist British rule and bring attention to the plight of the Indian people.

Key Features of Satyagraha:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa): Satyagrahis (followers of Satyagraha) must reject all forms of physical violence.
2. Truth (Satya): The pursuit of truth is central, and Satyagrahis should remain committed to the truth even under pressure.
3. Self-Sacrifice: Satyagraha requires personal suffering as a form of protest rather than inflicting suffering on others.

Through Satyagraha, Gandhi mobilized millions in India’s freedom struggle, making it one of the most powerful nonviolent movements in history. This approach also inspired other global leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela, in their own struggles for justice.

Gandhi’s Return to India (1915)

Mahatma Gandhi’s return to India in 1915 marked the beginning of a new era in the Indian freedom struggle. His unique strategy of non-violent resistance, Satyagraha, combined with mass movements, mobilized millions across the country. Gandhi played a pivotal role in transforming the nationalist movement into a broad-based struggle against British colonialism. Below is a comprehensive look at the key events and milestones from Gandhi’s arrival in India to the Quit India Movement.

• Date: January 9, 1915
• After leading successful movements in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India and toured the country to understand the plight of the masses.
• He was influenced by the conditions of Indian peasants, workers, and common people.

Significance:

• He gained insight into the real issues faced by Indians under British rule.
• This laid the groundwork for his future leadership and strategies in the freedom movement.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Date: April 1917
• Cause: The farmers in Champaran, Bihar, were forced to grow indigo and pay oppressive taxes to British planters. Gandhi intervened.
• Event: Gandhi led a peaceful protest, conducting surveys and giving legal support to the farmers.

Outcome:

• The British government was compelled to form a committee to investigate the farmers’ grievances, leading to reforms and relief for the indigo cultivators.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• Date: March 1918
• Cause: Due to drought and crop failures, farmers in Kheda, Gujarat, were unable to pay the high taxes demanded by the British.
• Event: Gandhi initiated a Satyagraha to support farmers in their refusal to pay taxes.

Outcome:

• The British authorities suspended the tax collection for the year, granting relief to the peasants.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

• Date: March 1918
• Cause: Gandhi supported mill workers in their demand for higher wages.
• Event: He undertook a fast to support the workers’ cause, leading to negotiations with mill owners.

Outcome:

• The strike succeeded in securing better wages for the mill workers.

Table: Early Satyagraha Movements

3. The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh

• Rowlatt Act (1919):
  • Gave the British government sweeping powers to imprison Indians without trial for up to two years.
  • Gandhi called for a hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919, leading to mass protests across the country.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
  • Thousands of unarmed people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to protest peacefully.
  • General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the crowd, killing over a thousand people.

Outcome: The massacre intensified Indian anger and resentment towards British rule, sparking even stronger nationalist sentiments​(

4. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

• Launch and Objectives:

• • In 1930, Gandhi initiated the Civil Disobedience Movement, aiming to break unjust laws non-violently.
  • Salt March: Gandhi’s 240-mile march to the coastal town of Dandi to make salt symbolized defiance against the British salt laws. It inspired nationwide protests.

• Expansion of the Movement:

• • Breaking of Salt Laws: People across India defied the British by making salt.
  • Boycott of British Goods: The boycott extended to foreign clothes, goods, and refusal to pay taxes.

Outcome:

• Widespread participation from all sectors of Indian society, including peasants, tribals, women, and business leaders.
• British responded with repression, mass arrests (including Gandhi), and violent crackdowns​(

5. Participation of Different Social Groups

• Peasants and Tribals:
  • In regions like Awadh, peasants demanded the reduction of taxes and an end to exploitative landlord practices.
  • Tribals, particularly in Andhra, resisted British policies that affected their access to forests.
• Business Class:
  • Indian merchants and industrialists supported the movement, hoping for an economic policy that favored indigenous goods and industries​(
• Women:
  • Women like Sarojini Naidu participated actively, picketing shops and joining demonstrations.
  • Thousands of women took part in boycotting foreign goods and promoting Swadeshi​(

6. The Limits of Civil Disobedience

• Dalits and Dr. Ambedkar:

• • Gandhi’s attempts to unite all castes faced challenges, particularly from the Dalit (Depressed Classes) leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
  • Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits, which was eventually opposed by Gandhi during the Poona Pact in 1932.

• Muslim League’s Response:

• • While the Khilafat Movement brought initial Hindu-Muslim unity, subsequent divisions emerged.
  • The Muslim League, under Jinnah, began seeking separate representation for Muslims, which sowed seeds for the future demand for Pakistan​

• Round Table Conferences

Introduction: The Round Table Conferences were a series of three formal meetings organized by the British government between 1930 and 1932 to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were an attempt to resolve the ongoing political crisis in India and to explore a framework for future governance, which could accommodate Indian demands for self-rule while preserving British interests.

The Conferences were held in London, and all key stakeholders were invited to participate, including representatives from the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, the Princely States, and other communities. However, the lack of consensus and divergent opinions led to limited success.

1. Background and Context

• Simon Commission (1927): The British government had earlier sent the Simon Commission to India to propose constitutional reforms. However, the commission faced severe opposition because it lacked any Indian representation. The Indian National Congress (INC) and other Indian leaders demanded full dominion status or complete independence.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): In response to the Simon Commission and oppressive British policies, Mahatma Gandhi and the INC launched the Civil Disobedience Movement. As protests intensified, the British government invited Indian leaders to the Round Table Conferences to negotiate constitutional reforms.

2. The Three Round Table Conferences

First Round Table Conference (November 1930 – January 1931)

• Objective: To discuss reforms proposed by the Simon Commission and address Indian demands for greater self-governance.
• Key Participants:
  • British Government representatives.
  • Leaders of the Muslim League, Princely States, and various minority groups.
  • Absence: The Indian National Congress (INC) boycotted the conference due to the ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement and Gandhi’s imprisonment.
• Discussions:
  • Proposals for federal governance in India, involving the princely states and provinces.
  • Separate electorates for minorities like Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalits.
• Outcome: Little concrete progress due to the absence of the INC, the main political force in India. However, it set the stage for future discussions.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931)

• After the failure of the first conference, Lord Irwin (Viceroy of India) held talks with Gandhi, leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This agreement ended the Civil Disobedience Movement and led to Gandhi’s participation in the second Round Table Conference.

Second Round Table Conference (September – December 1931)

• Key Participants:
  • Mahatma Gandhi representing the INC.
  • Leaders of the Muslim League, Sikh leaders, representatives of the Untouchables (Dalits), and the Princely States.
  • British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
• Key Issues:
  • Federal structure of India, autonomy for provinces, and safeguards for minorities.
  • Communal Representation: The primary issue of contention was separate electorates for minorities, especially the representation of Muslims, Dalits, and Sikhs.
  • Gandhi’s Stance: Gandhi opposed separate electorates, especially for Dalits (referred to as “Depressed Classes”), arguing that it would divide Indian society further.
• Outcome:
  • No consensus was reached on communal representation.
  • The British government favored granting separate electorates for minorities, which Gandhi vehemently opposed. This disagreement over representation resulted in the failure of the conference.

Third Round Table Conference (November – December 1932)

• Participants: Very few notable Indian leaders attended this session. The INC boycotted it again due to the ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Key Discussions:
  • The discussions mainly involved princely states, representatives of various minority groups, and British officials.
  • Focus on drafting a new constitution for India.
• Outcome:
  • The conference made limited progress due to the lack of representation from major Indian political forces, particularly the INC.
  • It led to the formulation of the Government of India Act, 1935, which introduced provincial autonomy and federal governance, but fell short of Indian aspirations for full self-rule.

Key Outcomes and Impact

1. Failure to Reach Consensus: None of the three conferences achieved a comprehensive agreement on the future governance of India. Disputes over communal representation and self-rule remained unresolved.
2. Constitutional Developments: The discussions laid the foundation for the Government of India Act, 1935, which introduced a federal structure, provincial autonomy, and separate electorates for minorities. However, this act was seen as inadequate by Indian leaders as it didn’t grant full independence.
3. Communal Representation: The issue of separate electorates, especially for Muslims and Dalits, continued to create divisions within Indian society. Gandhi’s opposition to separate electorates for Dalits led to the Poona Pact (1932), an agreement between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to provide reserved seats for Dalits within the general electorate rather than separate electorates.
4. Strengthening of Nationalist Sentiment: The failure of the Round Table Conferences and the subsequent Government of India Act, 1935, did not satisfy the Indian nationalists. This period further strengthened the Indian demand for complete independence, culminating in the Quit India Movement in 1942.

Conclusion

The Round Table Conferences were a crucial step in the British government’s attempt to negotiate constitutional reforms in India. However, the absence of consensus on key issues such as communal representation and full dominion status for India led to their limited success. Despite their failure, these conferences played a significant role in the evolution of the Indian independence movement by highlighting the deep-seated differences between the various political and social groups, and by showcasing the determination of Indians to gain complete self-rule.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Date: August 8, 1942
• Objective: Launched by the Congress under Gandhi’s leadership, this movement demanded an end to British rule and immediate independence for India.
• Event: Gandhi gave the famous slogan, “Do or Die”, urging Indians to act against colonial rule.
• British Reaction: The British arrested all major Congress leaders including Gandhi, and repressed the movement violently.

Add-Ons to Enhance Understanding

• Key Role of Women: The involvement of women in the nationalist movement, particularly during the Civil Disobedience Movement, marked a significant turning point in Indian politics.
• Economic Impact of Boycotts: The mass boycotts of British goods during the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements had a profound economic impact, severely affecting British industries.
• Cultural Nationalism: The adoption of Khadi (handspun cloth) became a symbol of self-reliance and resistance against British economic policies.

Conclusion

The chapter on Nationalism in India reflects the dynamic interplay of various social groups, regions, and ideologies that converged under the broader goal of independence. While the movements had their limitations, they successfully united a vast majority of Indians against British rule, laying the foundation for eventual independence in 1947​(

This comprehensive overview not only covers the critical aspects of the chapter but also deepens the understanding of the complexities within the Indian national movement, making it ideal for students preparing for their exams.