Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Introduction

The 19th century in Europe was a period of significant political and social changes, with nationalism emerging as a powerful force. The idea of nation-states, where people with common cultural, historical, and linguistic ties govern themselves, began to take shape. Nationalism was not just an abstract ideal; it became a driving force for revolutions, unification movements, and wars, leading to the formation of new countries and reshaping the political landscape of Europe. This chapter will explore the rise of nationalism, focusing on key events, movements, and personalities that shaped modern Europe. We will examine how ideas of nationhood spread, the role of revolutions, and the unification of countries like Germany and Italy, alongside the decline of old empires and the impact of the First World War.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• Impact of the French Revolution:

• • The revolution of 1789 in France marked the first significant expression of nationalism.
  • It led to the overthrow of the monarchy and established a republic based on liberty, equality, and fraternity.
  • The revolutionaries introduced a range of changes to consolidate a sense of national identity:
    • The abolition of feudalism.
    • The establishment of a national flag and a centralized administrative system.
    • The idea of the citizen as an individual with equal rights.
    • The promotion of the French language as the national language.

• Napoleonic Code:

• • Napoleon Bonaparte spread the ideas of the French Revolution across Europe.
  • The Napoleonic Code (1804) introduced legal equality, the right to property, and centralized administration.
  • Despite his authoritarian rule, Napoleon’s conquests helped spread the concepts of nationalism across Europe.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

• Cultural Unification:

• • Before nationalism, Europe was divided into multi-ethnic empires like the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires.
  • There were multiple languages, ethnicities, and religions in these empires, making the idea of nationalism seem distant.
  • Romanticism in the 19th century, with its focus on folklore, language, and national history, fueled the nationalistic fervor by glorifying the past.

• Role of Language and Folklore:

• • Language played a crucial role in unifying people under a common national identity.
  • For example, in Poland, which was divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, the Polish language became a symbol of resistance and identity.

The Rise of Revolutions (1830s and 1848)

• Revolutions of 1830:

• • The July Revolution of 1830 in France led to the overthrow of King Charles X and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.
  • This sparked a wave of revolutions across Europe:
    • Belgium declared its independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
    • Polish uprisings against Russian control.
    • Italian and German states saw movements pushing for unification and independence from foreign rule.

• Revolutions of 1848:

• • Known as the “Springtime of Nations”, these revolutions spread across Europe.
  • They were driven by a mix of nationalist, liberal, and socialist ideas.
  • In Germany, the Frankfurt Parliament attempted to unify the German states but failed due to opposition from the monarchy and lack of support from peasants.

The Unification of Germany

• Zollverein:

• • The creation of a customs union in 1834, known as Zollverein, was a step towards economic unification of the German states.
  • It facilitated trade and communication, creating a sense of unity.

• Otto von Bismarck and Realpolitik:

• • The unification of Germany was primarily the result of Bismarck’s diplomacy and strategic wars.
  • Realpolitik, a system of politics based on practical rather than ideological considerations, was Bismarck’s method.
  • Wars leading to unification:
    • Danish War (1864): Bismarck allied with Austria to defeat Denmark and gain control of Schleswig and Holstein.
    • Austro-Prussian War (1866): Also known as the Seven Weeks’ War, Prussia defeated Austria, leading to the exclusion of Austria from German affairs.
    • Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): A decisive war in which Prussia defeated France, leading to the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in 1871.

The Unification of Italy

• Key Personalities:

• • Giuseppe Mazzini: A revolutionary who founded the secret society Young Italy and worked towards unifying the Italian states.
  • Count Camillo di Cavour: The Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, he played a crucial role in diplomatic efforts to unify Italy.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: A nationalist leader whose army of Red Shirts liberated southern Italy.

• Steps to Unification:

• • 1859-60: Cavour’s diplomacy led to an alliance with France to defeat Austria, gaining control of northern Italy.
  • 1860: Garibaldi’s Red Shirts liberated Sicily and Naples.
  • 1870: The final unification came with the capture of Rome, which became the capital of unified Italy.

Nationalism in the UK

• The unification of Britain was different from other European nations as it was a gradual process over centuries:
  • Wales was annexed by England in 1536.
  • Scotland joined through the Act of Union (1707), creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
  • Ireland was incorporated in 1801, but later saw movements for independence leading to the partition of Ireland in 1921.

Balkan Nationalism and the First World War

• The Balkans:

• • The Balkan region was a hotbed of nationalist tensions due to its multi-ethnic composition and the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
  • Countries like Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro fought for independence throughout the 19th century.
  • The Balkan Wars (1912-1913) further destabilized the region, creating a volatile situation.

• First World War:

• • Nationalism in the Balkans was one of the key causes of World War I.
  • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 by a Serbian nationalist triggered a chain of events leading to the war.
  • The war involved most European nations and redrew the political map of Europe.

Important Treaties

• Treaty of Vienna (1815):
  • After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the old monarchies and suppress nationalist movements.
  • It redrew the boundaries of Europe, restoring territories to their pre-revolutionary rulers.
• Treaty of Versailles (1919):
  • Ended World War I and imposed harsh penalties on Germany.
  • The treaty also dismantled old empires, such as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, and created new nation-states like Poland and Czechoslovakia.

Here’s a list of the important personalities from the chapter “Rise of Nationalism in Europe” and their key contributions and associations:

1. Napoleon Bonaparte

• Association: France
• Contribution: Napoleon rose to power after the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of France. He spread the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity across Europe. His Napoleonic Code modernized law systems in several European countries. However, his expansionist policies also led to conflicts, which eventually resulted in his downfall.

2. Giuseppe Mazzini

• Association: Italy
• Contribution: Mazzini was a passionate advocate of Italian unification and a prominent nationalist figure. He founded the secret society Young Italy in 1831, which sought to unify Italy under a democratic republic. Mazzini believed that nations were the natural units of mankind and played a key role in promoting nationalist movements across Europe.

3. Otto von Bismarck

• Association: Prussia (Germany)
• Contribution: Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, was the architect of German unification. Using his diplomatic skill and the principle of Realpolitik, he orchestrated a series of wars that ultimately led to the formation of the German Empire in 1871. His leadership during the Franco-Prussian War was critical in uniting the German states under Prussian leadership.

4. Giuseppe Garibaldi

• Association: Italy
• Contribution: A military leader and nationalist, Garibaldi played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. Leading his volunteer army, the Red Shirts, Garibaldi successfully liberated southern Italy (Sicily and Naples) from foreign control. He later handed over the conquered territories to Victor Emmanuel II, helping achieve Italian unification.

5. Count Camillo di Cavour

• Association: Sardinia-Piedmont (Italy)
• Contribution: Cavour was the Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont and a key figure in the Italian unification movement. He used diplomatic alliances, particularly with France, to defeat Austria in 1859 and gain control of northern Italy. His political acumen was instrumental in achieving Italian unification under a constitutional monarchy.

6. Victor Emmanuel II

• Association: Italy
• Contribution: Victor Emmanuel II was the king of Sardinia-Piedmont who later became the first king of a unified Italy in 1861. His leadership, along with the efforts of Cavour and Garibaldi, brought about the unification of Italy, making him a symbol of the Italian nationalist movement.

7. King Louis Philippe

• Association: France
• Contribution: Known as the “Citizen King,” Louis Philippe came to power after the July Revolution of 1830, replacing King Charles X. His rule was characterized by a constitutional monarchy. However, his reign ended with the 1848 revolution, which led to the establishment of the Second French Republic.

8. Metternich

• Association: Austria
• Contribution: Klemens von Metternich was the Austrian Foreign Minister and later Chancellor. He was a conservative who opposed nationalist and liberal movements in Europe. As a key figure at the Congress of Vienna (1815), Metternich worked to restore the old monarchies and maintain the balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.

9. Lord Byron

• Association: Britain
• Contribution: Lord Byron, the famous English poet, was also a passionate supporter of the Greek independence movement. He participated in the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire and became a symbol of international support for nationalist causes.

10. Franz Joseph I

• Association: Austria-Hungary
• Contribution: Emperor Franz Joseph I ruled over the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire during the time when nationalist movements were gaining strength. His empire struggled to maintain control over nationalist movements, especially in the Balkans, where ethnic groups sought independence.

11. Johann Gottfried Herder

• Association: Germany (Prussia)
• Contribution: Herder was a philosopher and cultural nationalist who promoted the idea of Volksgeist (the spirit of the people). He emphasized the importance of national culture, language, and traditions in shaping the identity of a nation, influencing later German nationalist movements.

12. Karageorge and Milos Obrenovic

• Association: Serbia
• Contribution: Karageorge led the first Serbian uprising against Ottoman rule in 1804, beginning Serbia’s journey toward independence. Milos Obrenovic led a successful second uprising in 1815, which resulted in Serbia gaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire.

Conclusion

The rise of nationalism in Europe reshaped the continent, leading to the formation of modern nation-states. This period saw the collapse of empires, the unification of Italy and Germany, and the eventual outbreak of the First World War. Nationalism proved to be both a unifying and divisive force, and its legacy continues to influence global politics today.